Crimean War

The Crimean War was an armed struggle in which Britain, France, and Turkey fought against Russia on the Crimean Peninsula, from 1853 to 1856. This war was caused by the geopolitical rivalry among the European Powers as they attempted to exercise their hegemony in the Middle East, with Czar Nicholas of Russia trying to annex a swath of Turkey’s European territory and to control the Danubian Principalities in Eastern Europe. Thus, the Crimean War altered the balance of power in Europe, setting the stage for the "armed peace" period, which would lead to World War One.

In January 1853, Czar Nicolas disclosed his plans in two important interviews with Sir Hamilton Seymour, the English ambassador. He suggested that the two powers should divide between them the territories of the "sick man", which was the term used to refer to Turkey. The Danubian Principalities of Serbia,and Bulgaria were to be formed into independent states under Russian protection; England might annex Egypt, so important for the route to India, and also Candia, which was the name for Crete.

In March, 1853, the Russian Prince Menschikoff appeared in Constantinople, and adamantly demanded from the Turkish government the recognition of a Russian protectorate over all Turkish subjects belonging to the Greek church. Abdul Medjid replied by offering to secure the rights of the Greek Christians by charter, but refused to do so by treaty. Menschikoff withdrew after presenting an ultimatum, and the Russian Army under Gortschakoff crossed the Pruth (July 3, 1853), to occupy Moldavia and Wallachia as a guarantee for the fulfillment of Russian demands. The Turkish treated this as an act of hostility, and declared war on Russia on October 1.

Napoleon III of France seized the opportunity to secure his recently established empire by embarking in a great war and by obtaining the countenance and support of England. The two western powers concluded a treaty with the Turkish government on November 27, and promised their assistance if Russia would not accept peace on moderate terms. The destruction of the Turkish fleet at Sinope by Admiral Nakhimof destroyed the last chance of terminating the contest by diplomacy. The French and English fleets entered the Black Sea, and the Russian admiral had to retire to Sevastopol. In 1854 France and England declared war on Russia. Austria and Prussia remained neutral, but agreed to oppose the Russians if they attacked Austria or crossed the Balkans.

Summary of the War

In the Black Sea France and Great Britain blockaded Odessa. However, in the Baltic they attacked and captured Bormasund. Meanwhile, in April 1854, the Russians, under the General Paskiewitsch, laid siege to Silistria, but all attempts to storm the fortress were foiled. In July this siege was raised, the Principalities were evacuated, and Austria undertook their occupation by a treaty with the Turkish. Then the French and English commanders decided to lead their armies to the Crimean Peninsula and to attack Sebastopol, a very important city-port.

On September 14, 1854, the Anglo-French forces landed without opposition at Eupatoria, in the Crimea. Having defeated the Russians at the Battle of the Alma September 20, 1854, they made their way to the great fortress of Sevastopol. A vigorous pursuit of the Russians might have taken Sevastopol at once, but the delay enabled the Russian commander, Prince Menschikoff, to make elaborate preparations for defense. The siege lasted for more than twelve months and absorbed the interested attention of Europe. At the Battle of Balaclava on October 25, and Inkermann on November 5, the Russian counteroffensive was thrown back after vicious fighting and serious loss on both sides. In January, 1855, the allied forces were strengthened by the arrival of 18,000 Sardinian troops under La Marmora.

The disasters of 1854 were a bitter humiliation to Nicolas, and probably hastened his death, which occurred on March 3, 1855. His successor, Alexander II, hoped that his accession to the Russian throne might lead to the conclusion of the war. However, hostilities were soon renewed as the English fleet destroyed the Russian base of supplies, but the garrison, which was now commanded by Gortschakoff, held out with great courage. Next the English attacked the Redan and the French the Malakoff, but both assaults were repulsed with great loss on June 18, 1855.

The French were now commanded by Pelissier, who had superseded Canrobert, the successor of St. Arnaud. On the death of Lord Raglan (June 28), General Simpson undertook the command of the English army. Although the two armies supported each other with creditable loyalty, there can be no doubt that the dual command was a great obstacle to the success of the besiegers. On August 16, a Russian attack on the Tschernaya was repelled with great loss; it was a battle in which the Sardinian contingent distinguished itself. Meanwhile, the French and English had at last succeeded in bringing a superior force of artillery to bear upon the Russian fortresses, and on August 17, they initiated a massive bombardment.

For twenty-three days the batteries kept up an almost incessant fire, which inflicted terrible damage. On September 8, 1855 a general assault was ordered. The French stormed the Malakoff, but the English, after temporarily taking the Redan, were forced to retreat for lack of support. The Russians, however, could no longer hang onto their positions and hold off the Allies attacks. Therefore, on September 10, Gortschakoff evacuated Sevastopol and retired to the north side of the harbor. The success of the Allies was by no means complete, the Russians still occupied a very strong position. But, at this point, Austria undertook to mediate and the bases of a pacification were agreed upon in January, 1856, and an armistice was concluded. A conference met at Paris, where the final treaty was signed on March 30. The British and the French accepted the mediation as they had suffered heavy losses and they had not achieved their main objective.

Provisions of the Peace Treaty

The Russian protectorate over the Danubian Principalities was abolished; the free navigation of the Danube was to be secured by the appointment of an international commission; the Black Sea was neutralized, and all ships of war, including those of Turkey and Russia, were to be excluded, except a small number of light vessels to protect the coasts; the Sultan undertook to confirm the privileges of his Christian subjects, but the powers agreed not to use this as a pretext for interfering with his domestic administration.